The Writing Inscribed On Ancient Oracle Bones Is Easily Understood Today Because

Modern graphs

Qin graphs
from Haojiaping
(c. 309 B.C.)

Qin graphs
from Shuihudi
(c. 217 B.C.)

Chu graphs
from Baoshan
(c. 317 B.C.)

From O. Venture, 2006, p. 34

Oracle bone inscription. Ox scapula fragment.
Second half of the XIIIth c. BCE. (© Cernuschi Museum)

The earliest evidence of Chinese writing goes back to the 13^th century BCE, which makes it the oldest form of writing in East Asia.

Unlike what we know about the early development of writing in Egypt and Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium BCE, Chinese writing had already appeared, from its earliest discoveries, as a developed system that allows the different elements of a language to be noted. Certain specialists consider the possibility of a less developed earlier stage, however, no evidence was ever discovered. On the other hand, other scholars, emphasizing, for example, the lack of standardization of written forms, believe that this system must have been invented at that time, or maybe slightly earlier. In any case, it is without doubt, the ancestor of modern Chinese writing. Although the written form at the time seemed more archaic, the principles of character forming are generally the same.

It was during the last period of the Shang dynasty (1250 to 1050 BCE) that the first inscriptions written in Chinese appeared on different kinds of objects. These objects were related to the aristocracy and were mostly used in ritual practices, such as divination and ancestral cults, etc. There were thousands of inscriptions on bronze ritual vases, most of which were very short (one to three characters), regarding ancestors and lineages. In addition, there were also thousands of inscriptions found on the bones of cattle and turtle shells (more than 100 000 fragments), used for divination purposes, which were discovered. This kind of inscription consists mostly of short summaries about divinations, carved after the completion of the mantic practice. The characters used in this type of inscription are not carefully written, unlike those written on more luxurious objects such as vases made out of bronze.

More than 90% of the inscriptions from the Shang period excavated by archaeologists came from the Anyang area, where the Shang kingdom capital was established. Thus, writing seems to have been, at first, the privilege of small groups of people, linked to the royal household. In this context, considering the proximity between the people who were able to write and those able to read, and the very limited variety of subjects treated in these inscriptions, the Shang population may not have felt the need for standardizing their writing.

Map of China, with the position of three historical Chinese capitals:
Anyang, Xi'an et Luoyang (© J. Holotova, CNRS/UMR 8155)

The Zhou were enemies, and then allies of the Shang. When the Zhou finally overthrew the Shang around 1050 BCE, they had already adopted the Shang form of writing and the written language for several years. The history of the Zhou dynasty is traditionally divided into two periods: Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou. The former corresponds to a time of relative unity and stability. Despite the political entities that coexisted at that time in China, the lords accepted the authority of the King of Zhou, whose capital was established in the Xi'an region.

Most of the inscriptions from the Western Zhou period were dedications on a bronze ritual vase, which were longer than Shang inscriptions, and can be resumed as: "Person X made such a vase for a person Z". In longer inscriptions, which was the case in aristocratic circles, close to the government, there could be several tens of characters (the longest approaching five hundred signs), which in addition to the dedication, there were references to official appointment ceremonies lead by the king. Such texts, even if they were connected to the worship of ancestors, were also aimed to strengthen the status of the owner of the vase towards other members of the aristocracy.

During the Western Zhou period, writing was no longer confined to the privileges of circles close to the royal house. This broader diffusion of writing can partly be explained by the political system that was put into place by the Zhou and, in particular, the large number of regional lords belonging to the royal family. That which was mentioned in the Zhou inscriptions illustrated the pragmatic uses of writing; there does not seem to be any trace of this during the Shang dynasty. References were sometime made to documents, probably written on rolls of bamboo slats, regarding official ceremonies, land exchange or judgments. The new written practices were developed at the Zhou court and inside the royal house. They were also adopted, on a smaller scale, in aristocratic circles from other regions. At that time, regional elites kept good relationships with the royal household, generally accepting its political and cultural supremacy. This is the reason for which the normalization process affecting Chinese writing, as seen in the evolution of bronze inscriptions from those close to the royal family, also occurred in all the sinicized states. Thus, even if Chinese writing was practised in an area extending from the west of the current Shaanxi province to Beijing (more than 1 000 km), a high degree of uniformity can be seen in this writing. This uniformity must have contrasted with the linguistic diversity of the inhabitants of the different regions of this large territory. However, the elites, many of whom came from Zhou, must have spoken the same language, or at least shared the same form of writing. The differences only appeared after the end of the Western Zhou.

Rubbing of a bronze inscription. Around VIIIth century BCE.
(© Collection of the Institut des hautes études chinoises of Collège de France - n°1306)

In 771 BCE, following the invasion carried out the by enemy and internal tensions, the Zhou royal household was forced to abandon its capital and its home territory in the Shaanxi province, to take refuge in the secondary capital of the kingdom, in what is now known as 'Luoyang', in the Henan province. The Zhou royal house thus lost most of its original territory and was consequently deprived of one of its main sources of legitimacy.

During the Eastern Zhou period (770-256 BCE), the most powerful states struggled to assert their own power and extend their authority as much as possible over other countries. The use of writing became increasingly important, especially when new administrative practices were developed for a more efficient control of extending territories. To face these new needs and for note-taking to be faster, writing evolved. It is also during this period that numerous words appeared in the written vocabulary and that, at the same time, new characters were created to replace others that were considered too ambiguous. These changes occurred at a time when the Zhou form of writing was not as effective as it used to be. Thus, the evolution of writing happened in quite a different way depending on the country. That is why regional variants of Chinese writing appeared at that time, characterized by specific written forms, vocabulary and choices about characters that were used to note certain words. This was a unique period in the history of writing. However, despite the differences, the similarities are that which dominate. It should be remembered that these types of writing stem from the same origin: Zhou writing, inherited from the Shang dynasty.

For the Eastern Zhou period, archaeologists have discovered material concerning new usages of writing that remained unattested in previous periods: seals, manuscripts, coins, public inscriptions on erected stones or rocks, etc. Even if the problem of the materials' conservation is taken into account, it has to be accepted that this sudden diversification of written evidence reflects an evolution in writing practices. Also during this period, new writing styles were developed for aesthetic reasons; formal aspects were sometimes chosen over the intelligibility of the text.

In 221 BCE, the King of Qin had achieved unifying all sinicized countries and adopted the title of the First Emperor. The unification of writing that was proclaimed at that time did not result in the creation of an entirely new writing system summarizing the different existing writing traditions. Qin simply imposed his own tradition in the territory under the authority of the emperor. This policy resulted in the disappearance of other regional variants of Chinese writing that had developed over more than three centuries. New standards were being adopted everywhere in the empire and these lasted a long time. This success may be explained by the fact that the Qin form of writing was closest to that of Western Zhou, the common origin of all regional variants. The functioning and extent of Qin centralized administration would have also contributed to this success.

Decorative inscription using « bird script » on sword's guard.
Second half of the Vth century BCE. (© Cernuschi Museum)

The Qin dynasty only lasted 15 years, but even after its collapse in 207 BCE, the principle of a singular form of writing was never called into question. The next dynasty, the Han dynasty, which ruled from 206 BCE to 220 CE, took up many things that were established by the Qin, especially regarding administration.

Chinese writing continued to spread more widely in society and to change. From the Qin period, the Han society developed a less rounded writing called 'scribe writing'. Its written form was wider than its height and there was a strong contrast between thin and thick strokes. At the same time, the characters' structure was normalized. The development of a cursive writing can also be seen in the practice of note-taking or drafting, the clean copy of which was produced using a finer scribe form of writing.

The last phase of the evolution of Chinese writing gradually occurred between the 3^rd and 6^th centuries CE, which led to modern Chinese writing.

Conclusion

Archaeological written evidence show that the evolution of Chinese writing did not occur independently from the evolution of the Chinese society; it came with it. When writing appeared in China, it was a marginal practice at first that only concerned limited circles close to the king. It then started to spread among the higher classes and inside groups of writing professionals who were becoming more important in society, accompanying the forming of the first administrations. Parallel to this, an expansion of writing towards new social categories and corporations can be seen. It is in this dynamic context (because it has to face new needs and reach a broader audience from different backgrounds, and also in light of historical events) that the evolution of Chinese writing must be understood.

Olivier Venture
Epigraphist,
Assistant-Professor at École Pratique des Hautes Études
Member of the « Centre de Recherche sur l'Asie Orientale »
(CNRS-EPHE-Université Paris Diderot-Collège de France)

Further reading

Robert Bagley, « Anyang Writing and the Origin of the Chinese Writing System », in S. Houston éd., The First Writing. Script Invention as History and Process. Cambridge University press 2004, p. 190-249.

Françoise Bottéro, « Writing on shell and bone in Shang China », in The First Writing, p. 250-261.

Li Feng, « Literacy and the Social Contexts of Writing in the Western Zhou », in Li F. and D. Branner éd., Writing and Literacy in Early China: Studies from the Columbia Early China Seminar, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2011,p. 271-301.

Qiu Xigui (G. Mattos et J. Norman trad.), Chinese Writing, The Society for the Study of Ancient China and The Institute of Asian Studies, Berkeley, University of California, 2000.

Olivier Venture, « La question des 'écritures chinoises' à l'époque des Royaumes combattants », in A. Thote dir., Arts asiatiques – Volume en hommage à Madame Michèle Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens – L'autre en regard, tome 61, 2006, p. 30-44.

Robin Yates, « Soldiers, Scribes, and Women: Literacy among the Lower Orders in Early China », in Writing and Literacy in Early China, p. 339-369.

Rubbing of a fragment of a stele inscribed with the postface
to the Stone Classics from the Xiping era (Second half of the second century CE).
(© Collection of the Institut des hautes études chinoises of Collège de France - n°1478-1)